California’s first governor, Peter Hardeman Burnett, notoriously championed a racist campaign with the chilling vow that it would not cease "until the Indian race becomes extinct." His two years in office, from 1849 to 1851, unleashed a brutal period marked by malnutrition, widespread homicide, and forced migration, leading to the decimation of California’s Native populations by nearly 90% between 1848 and 1900. This era, rooted in the broader American expansionist ideology of Manifest Destiny, mirrored a national pattern of systemic violence and displacement against Indigenous peoples, from the forced marches of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears to the genocidal policies enacted across the American West. Despite these calculated efforts to erase their existence and culture, Burnett’s campaign ultimately failed, and California’s Indigenous communities, against overwhelming odds, survived and persisted.

A pivotal moment in this long struggle for recognition and self-determination arrived in 1905 when the United States government publicly disclosed the unratified treaties it had made with 18 California tribes. These treaties, negotiated decades prior but never formally ratified by Congress, had left tribes in a legal limbo, their land rights unrecognized despite prior agreements. The disclosure galvanized these tribes, prompting them to embark on a concerted effort to build robust legal and economic frameworks aimed at asserting and protecting their inherent tribal sovereignty. This foundational work laid the groundwork for future generations to reclaim their rightful place and build a new path forward, culminating decades later in landmark legislation. In 1988, the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) was enacted, a watershed moment that legally affirmed the right of Native American tribes to operate gaming enterprises on their sovereign lands, free from direct state interference, provided they entered into compacts with state governments for Class III gaming.

Following IGRA’s passage, small casinos began to sprout on reservations in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Southern California, transforming landscapes and economies. These initial ventures quickly proved successful, leading to the proliferation of similar resorts across the country. The economic benefits generated from this burgeoning industry have since become a powerful engine, fueling the ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty by providing tribes with unprecedented resources for self-governance and community development. This transformative impact has been meticulously documented in a recent study from the Harvard Kennedy School Project on Indigenous Governance and Development. The report, authored by three distinguished Indigenous researchers—Randall Akee (Native Hawaiian), Elijah Moreno (Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation), and Amy Besaw Medford (Brothertown)—offers a comprehensive analysis of how gaming has empowered tribes to acquire both essential economic and political capital.

The authors underscored the pervasive reach of tribal gaming, stating, "In reality, nearly every tribe is impacted by gaming in some capacity, whether directly or indirectly." They further posited that "Past studies on American Indian gaming likely understate its impact, as nearly every tribe in the US may be exposed to various aspects of the industry whether they directly operate a casino themselves or not." This assertion highlights the ripple effect of gaming revenues, which extend far beyond the immediate profits of a single casino, influencing tribal economies, infrastructure, and policy engagement across Indian Country. The sheer scale of this economic force is evident in the figures: tribes reported a staggering $43.9 billion to the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) last year, representing nearly 40% of the nation’s total $115 billion in gaming revenue, according to the American Gaming Association. Critically, tribes are strategically deploying these substantial funds to underwrite a wide array of much-needed programs and services for their citizens, including healthcare initiatives, educational institutions, small business development, philanthropic endeavors, and crucial infrastructure projects.

While tribal gaming has historically faced criticism, particularly concerning the potential negative social impacts associated with gambling, the Harvard study presents a nuanced and compelling counter-narrative. It delves deeply into gaming economies and their profound impact on tribal investments, not only within Indigenous communities but also on the broader U.S. economy. Researchers rigorously examined 14 key indicators—including population trends, income levels, poverty rates, labor force participation, housing conditions, and educational attainment—across reservation communities in the Lower 48 states between 1990 and 2020. The Navajo Nation, due to its unique demographic and geographical scale, was analyzed separately. The conclusive finding of the study was that gaming has played a central, indispensable role in enabling tribal economies to successfully leverage revenue for the accumulation of political capital. This capital, in turn, funds powerful lobbying groups dedicated to advancing tribal sovereignty, with the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) standing as the largest and most prominent among them.

The critical importance of this political advocacy was underscored in early September, just weeks before his sudden passing on September 26, when Indian Gaming Association Chairman Ernie Stevens Jr. (Oneida Nation) joined Native-run lobbyists in Washington, D.C. He convened with NCAI leaders representing the Ponca Tribes of Nebraska, Pechanga, Cherokee, and Muscogee Creek Nations. This powerful assembly of the nation’s largest gaming tribes had gathered to deliver a clear message to Congress: a reminder of Indian Country’s substantial and growing economic contributions to the national fabric. Stevens passionately articulated the industry’s reach, stating, "In the Indian gaming world, we’re responsible for 700,000 jobs." He emphasized the self-reliance and community-focused ethos driving these efforts: "We continue to help this world turn, and we don’t do it by asking for help. We do it to help. Ask people to understand what we do is for our communities, for our generation and generations to come." Stevens also confirmed that gaming revenue, buoyed by not just casino operations but also associated amenities like entertainment options, conferences, dining establishments, and lodging, had successfully returned to "pre-COVID levels," signaling robust recovery and continued growth.

Stevens credited his mentors—Rick Hill, Gay Kingman, and Tim Wapato—not only with the implementation of foundational tribal gaming laws but also with forging enduring relationships with Congress, essential for lobbying effectively for tribal sovereignty. He elaborated on their mission: "They came to Washington to establish the presence of gaming and help folks understand why it’s not just about economic development, it’s about tribal sovereignty, our governments, how we interact in today’s world, and to defend every aspect of tribal sovereignty." Under Stevens’ dynamic leadership, the NIGC strategically utilized treaty laws to expand the scope and reach of tribal gaming, leading to a remarkable increase in revenues exceeding $20 billion. This financial surge empowered tribes to fund essential services that federal governments traditionally struggle to provide, including housing programs, educational initiatives, and healthcare facilities, alongside financing other critical capital projects.

The tangible impact of this economic strength and political advocacy became strikingly evident during recent federal government shutdowns. Thanks to the concerted efforts of the NCAI lobby and their September meetings with Congress, tribes successfully protected vital services like the Indian Health Service (IHS) and the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) from devastating furloughs and funding cuts. Furthermore, tribes with substantial gaming revenue demonstrated their commitment to the broader Indigenous community by extending assistance to their own citizens and those of other tribes lacking casino reserves. They provided crucial food aid and maintained payroll for tribal government employees even as their federal counterparts faced furloughs. However, as the shutdowns protracted, these tribal financial reserves, though significant, inevitably dwindled, highlighting the ongoing vulnerability and the need for consistent federal support based on trust and treaty obligations.

The severe consequences of federal inaction were starkly illustrated on October 29, as a government shutdown neared a month-long duration, when Ben Mallott, then-president of the Alaska Federation of Natives, testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs. He recounted the dire situation faced by Alaska’s Indigenous people, who were being forced to make an agonizing choice between "food or fuel" due to disrupted services and funding. In a powerful display of inter-tribal solidarity, when the remnants of Typhoon Halong subsequently ravaged the western Alaska coast in October, the NCAI and gaming tribes swiftly mobilized, providing critical aid through substantial donations. Cherokee Nation Deputy Principal Chief Bryan Warner articulated this deep-seated cultural value, stating, "As Cherokees, we have long-settled traditions of coming together and helping others, but especially in times of tragedy or catastrophes such as this. Our word for it is Gadugi, which at its core is all of us working together and supporting one another."

The Harvard report further affirmed that "tribes with successful casinos also often play a significant role in funding community development, benefiting both tribal and non-tribal communities." A prime example is the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community, which has leveraged its considerable success in the gaming industry to invest heavily in community projects within its territory and extend vital support to other tribes across Minnesota, embodying the spirit of inter-tribal mutual aid. This proactive approach to community development not only addresses immediate needs but also fosters long-term self-sufficiency and strengthens regional economic ties.

Looking back to 1906, a year after California tribes gained partial recognition of their treaty rights, a Bureau of Indian Affairs employee named C.E. Kelsey successfully petitioned the federal government to acquire an additional 235 acres of land for the Pechanga Band of Indians in Riverside County. Decades later, when Mark Macarro assumed the chairmanship of the Pechanga Band of Indians in 1995, the tribe had just opened its first modest casino. At that time, state law had not yet fully adapted to the implications of IGRA, but in 1998, California voters overwhelmingly approved Proposition 5, which formally legalized and regulated tribal gaming within the state. Throughout that pivotal campaign, Macarro consistently reminded the public that Proposition 5 would not merely bring economic benefits but would fundamentally prove a boon for tribal sovereignty and self-governance. By 2002, the Pechanga tribe had opened a sprawling 200,000-square-foot casino and resort in Temecula, California, strategically located on the very Kelsey Tract acquired a century prior. Today, this impressive facility stands as one of the county’s largest overall employers, providing jobs for both Native and non-Native workers, underscoring its significant regional economic integration.

In 2004, Katherine Spilde, chair of the Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University and a recognized expert in tribal gaming, conducted a separate Harvard study examining casino gambling’s impact on overall economic well-being, focusing specifically on the Pechanga tribe. Spilde, though not Indigenous, was raised on the White Earth Nation in Minnesota, where her parents served as schoolteachers, giving her a unique perspective on tribal communities. Her research highlighted the transformative effect of gaming, as she wrote, "Pechanga government’s gaming and resort revenues have allowed the Tribe to effectively eliminate its reliance on other governments and to create opportunities that benefit the entire region." She further observed, "The results are a sense of independence and self-determination among Pechanga citizens, and productive and mutually supportive relations with the surrounding communities where once there was very little positive interaction between the Tribe and its neighbors." This illustrates how economic empowerment directly translates into enhanced sovereignty and improved inter-community relations.

In September, prior to the federal shutdown, Chairman Macarro noted a growing understanding among both Congress and administration officials regarding the efficacy of tribal self-determination. He expressed optimism, stating, "We have much more work to do, but we leave this week with momentum, with allies on both sides of the aisle, and with a shared understanding that when tribal nations thrive America thrives." This sentiment encapsulates the strategic argument put forth by Native American leaders: robust, self-sufficient tribal economies contribute directly to the strength and stability of the entire U.S. economy.

Tribal sovereignty, a fundamental aspect of Native American identity and governance, endures under long-standing legal frameworks that are significantly strengthened by healthy and diversified economies. Ensuring that the U.S. government continues to meet its trust and treaty obligations—commitments that date back centuries and encompass provisions for healthcare, education, and land rights—requires persistent and ever-evolving negotiations with federal authorities. As the U.S. government navigates radical and often unexpected shifts in policy and priorities, the NCAI consistently advocates for the recognition that economically healthy tribes are not merely beneficiaries but active contributors, well-positioned to bolster the U.S. economy.

Cherokee Nation Chief Chuck Hoskin Jr. candidly acknowledges that some tribes continue to face serious budget problems, exacerbated by recent cuts from the federal government. This reality, he emphasizes, makes the NCAI’s lobbying efforts absolutely vital, acting as a critical shield to protect essential projects and services from being dismantled by shifting federal priorities. Hoskin articulated the ongoing advocacy: "We’re pointing out where the Congress can do better, where the agencies can do better; we’re pointing out that self-determination is the law of the land, and it’s not only the law of the land, it is a prescription that works." He underscored the disparity in tribal capacity, noting, "While we may be able to absorb some of the damage done by cuts, there are tribes for which this is absolutely consequential in terms of stopping services. We’re using our resources to do it and asking that the United States ought to step up and help us do it." The journey from near annihilation to economic self-sufficiency, propelled significantly by the gaming industry, stands as a testament to the enduring resilience, strategic acumen, and unwavering commitment of Native American nations to their sovereignty and the well-being of their future generations.