The historical narrative of California’s Indigenous peoples is deeply scarred by the genocidal policies championed by its first governor, Peter Hardeman Burnett, who infamously vowed that his racist campaign would persist "until the Indian race becomes extinct." His two-year tenure, from 1849 to 1851, unleashed a brutal campaign of violence, forced migration, and engineered starvation, which tragically led to the decimation of nearly 90% of California’s Native populations between 1848 and 1900. This period represents one of the darkest chapters in American history, characterized by state-sponsored massacres, land theft, and systemic efforts to erase Indigenous cultures and communities. Yet, despite the profound trauma and relentless assault on their existence, the Indigenous peoples of California, and indeed across the United States, demonstrated extraordinary resilience, refusing to be extinguished. Their survival laid the groundwork for a remarkable journey toward self-determination and economic empowerment.

A pivotal moment in this enduring struggle arrived in 1905 when the United States government publicly acknowledged the existence of 18 unratified treaties it had negotiated with various California tribes. These treaties, never ratified by the U.S. Senate, had promised vast lands and resources in exchange for peace, but their failure to be legally recognized left tribes in a precarious state, often landless and without formal federal protection. The public disclosure of these forgotten agreements galvanized tribal communities, prompting them to embark on a concerted effort to construct a robust legal and economic framework to assert and protect their inherent tribal sovereignty. This pursuit of self-governance gained significant momentum with the enactment of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) in 1988. This landmark federal legislation provided a statutory basis for tribes to operate gaming facilities on their sovereign lands, recognizing gaming as a vital tool for tribal economic development and self-sufficiency. Soon after, small casinos began to emerge on reservations in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Southern California, rapidly evolving into expansive resorts that dotted the national landscape. The substantial economic benefits generated by these enterprises have since become a powerful engine, fueling the ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty and transforming the socio-economic landscape of Native communities.

A groundbreaking recent study from the Harvard Kennedy School Project on Indigenous Governance and Development offers compelling insights into the profound impact of gaming, illustrating how it has been instrumental in enabling tribes to acquire both economic and political capital. Authored by three distinguished Indigenous researchers—Randall Akee (Native Hawaiian), Elijah Moreno (Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation), and Amy Besaw Medford (Brothertown)—the report challenges previous assessments that may have understated the industry’s far-reaching influence. "In reality, nearly every tribe is impacted by gaming in some capacity, whether directly or indirectly," the authors assert, highlighting that even tribes without direct casino operations often benefit from the broader economic ecosystem created by the industry. This comprehensive analysis underscores that the economic ripple effect of tribal gaming extends far beyond reservation borders, integrating Native economies into the broader national framework.

The sheer scale of tribal gaming’s contribution to the national economy is undeniable. Last year, tribes reported a staggering $43.9 billion to the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC), representing nearly 40% of the nation’s total $115 billion in gaming revenue, according to data from the American Gaming Association. This immense revenue stream is not merely a source of profit but a critical lifeline, meticulously directed by tribal governments to fund essential services and strategic investments. These include desperately needed healthcare facilities, educational programs from early childhood to higher education, support for small business development within tribal communities, philanthropic initiatives that extend beyond reservation boundaries, and a myriad of other community-driven programs that address historical disparities and build a foundation for future prosperity.

While tribal gaming has faced scrutiny and criticism, particularly regarding the potential negative social impacts associated with gambling, the Harvard study presents a nuanced and empirically supported counter-narrative. It meticulously examines the intricate gaming economies and their transformative impact on tribal investments, not only within Indigenous communities but also on the overall U.S. economy. The researchers employed a rigorous methodology, analyzing 14 key indicators—including population dynamics, income levels, poverty rates, labor force participation, housing conditions, and educational attainment—across reservation communities in the Lower 48 states over a significant three-decade period, from 1990 to 2020. (The Navajo Nation, due to its unique demographic and geographic scale, was studied separately to ensure analytical precision). The study’s conclusions are unequivocal: gaming has served as a central pillar for tribal economies, enabling them to successfully leverage revenue not just for direct services but also for accumulating vital political capital. This capital is strategically deployed to fund influential advocacy groups that tirelessly lobby for the advancement and protection of tribal sovereignty, with the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) standing out as the largest and most prominent among them.

The late Ernie Stevens Jr., former Chairman of the Indian Gaming Association and a revered member of the Oneida Nation, was a tireless advocate for tribal gaming and sovereignty. Just weeks before his sudden passing on September 26, he led a delegation to Washington, D.C., joining leaders from the National Congress of American Indians representing powerful tribes such as the Ponca Tribes of Nebraska, Pechanga, Cherokee, and Muscogee Creek Nations. This powerful alliance of the nation’s largest gaming tribes converged on the capital to emphatically remind Congress of Indian Country’s profound economic contributions. "In the Indian gaming world, we’re responsible for 700,000 jobs," Stevens declared, underscoring the sector’s significant role in the national labor market. "We continue to help this world turn, and we don’t do it by asking for help. We do it to help. Ask people to understand what we do is for our communities, for our generation and generations to come." Stevens also confirmed that gaming revenues, encompassing not only casino operations but also related amenities like entertainment venues, conference facilities, food services, and lodging, had successfully rebounded to "pre-COVID levels," demonstrating the industry’s resilience and robust recovery. He credited his mentors—Rick Hill, Gay Kingman, and Tim Wapato—not only for their instrumental role in implementing tribal gaming laws but also for their pioneering efforts in forging enduring relationships with Congress, essential for advocating tribal sovereignty on the national stage.

Under Stevens’ visionary leadership, the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) skillfully utilized existing treaty laws and federal regulations to strategically expand tribal gaming, leading to an impressive increase in revenues exceeding $20 billion. This financial boon has empowered tribes to fund a wide array of essential services, including critical housing initiatives, comprehensive educational programs, and accessible healthcare, while also financing other crucial capital projects that enhance community infrastructure and quality of life. The tangible impact of tribal economic strength was dramatically illustrated during recent federal government shutdowns. Thanks to the coordinated lobbying efforts of the NCAI and the financial stability provided by gaming tribes, critical programs like the Indian Health Service (IHS) and the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) were shielded from devastating furloughs and funding cuts that would have severely impacted vulnerable Native communities. Furthermore, tribes with substantial gaming revenues were able to provide direct assistance to their citizens, and even to members of other tribes lacking casino reserves, offering food aid and maintaining tribal government employee salaries when their federal counterparts faced furloughs. This demonstrated an extraordinary level of self-sufficiency and inter-tribal solidarity, though these reserves, too, dwindled as prolonged shutdowns tested their capacity to help.

The spirit of Gadugi, the Cherokee word embodying the principle of working together and supporting one another, was vividly demonstrated in the aftermath of natural disasters. When the remnants of Typhoon Halong ravaged the western Alaska coast, causing widespread devastation and forcing Indigenous communities to choose between "food or fuel," as eloquently testified by Ben Mallott, president of the Alaska Federation of Natives, before the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, the NCAI and gaming tribes swiftly mobilized. They provided crucial donations and aid, exemplifying the powerful network of support fostered by tribal economic empowerment. Cherokee Nation Deputy Principal Chief Bryan Warner articulated this deeply rooted tradition: "As Cherokees, we have long-settled traditions of coming together and helping others, but especially in times of tragedy or catastrophes such as this. Our word for it is Gadugi, which at its core is all of us working together and supporting one another."

Beyond direct tribal benefits, the Harvard report highlights how "tribes with successful casinos also often play a significant role in funding community development, benefiting both tribal and non-tribal communities." The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community in Minnesota stands as a prime example, having leveraged its considerable success in the gaming industry to invest heavily in broad community projects and to extend vital support to other tribes across the state, fostering regional prosperity and inter-tribal cooperation.

The journey of the Pechanga Band of Indians in Riverside County, California, encapsulates this transformative narrative. A year after the disclosure of the unratified treaties in 1906, a Bureau of Indian Affairs employee, C.E. Kelsey, successfully petitioned the federal government to acquire an additional 235 acres, known as the Kelsey Tract, for the Pechanga people. Decades later, when Mark Macarro assumed the chairmanship of the Pechanga Band in 1995, the tribe had just opened its first modest casino. While state law lagged behind, California voters decisively approved Proposition 5 in 1998, which formally allowed tribal gaming. Throughout this pivotal campaign, Macarro consistently emphasized that Prop. 5 would not only provide economic opportunity but, more importantly, prove a boon for tribal sovereignty. In 2002, the tribe opened a sprawling 200,000-square-foot casino and resort on the historic Kelsey Tract in Temecula, California. This enterprise quickly grew to become one of the county’s largest employers, providing jobs for both Native and non-Native workers and significantly contributing to the regional economy.

In 2004, Katherine Spilde, an expert on tribal gaming and chair of the Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University, featured the Pechanga tribe in a separate Harvard study examining casino gambling’s impact on overall economic well-being. Though not Indigenous herself, Spilde was raised on the White Earth Nation in Minnesota, where her parents were schoolteachers, affording her a unique perspective. Her research concluded that "Pechanga government’s gaming and resort revenues have allowed the Tribe to effectively eliminate its reliance on other governments and to create opportunities that benefit the entire region." Spilde further noted the profound societal shift: "The results are a sense of independence and self-determination among Pechanga citizens, and productive and mutually supportive relations with the surrounding communities where once there was very little positive interaction between the Tribe and its neighbors." This illustrates how economic success has fostered positive inter-community relations, replacing historical tensions with shared prosperity.

As tribal leaders continue to navigate complex political landscapes, the message from Indian Country remains clear and consistent. In a statement made before the recent federal shutdown, Chairman Macarro articulated a growing understanding in Washington: "We have much more work to do, but we leave this week with momentum, with allies on both sides of the aisle, and with a shared understanding that when tribal nations thrive America thrives." This sentiment reflects the core belief that tribal sovereignty, underpinned by robust and self-sustaining economies, is not only a matter of justice but also a strategic asset for the entire nation.

Tribal sovereignty, a foundational principle of U.S. law, endures through a complex web of long-standing legal frameworks and is demonstrably strengthened by healthy, diversified economies. Ensuring that the United States government continues to honor its sacred trust and treaty obligations to Native nations necessitates dynamic and ever-evolving negotiations. In a period marked by radical and often unpredictable shifts in federal government priorities, the National Congress of American Indians consistently advocates for the recognition that economically healthy tribes are uniquely positioned to bolster the broader U.S. economy. Cherokee Nation Chief Chuck Hoskin Jr. acknowledges that while some tribes possess significant financial reserves, many others face severe budget problems, frequently exacerbated by recent federal funding cuts. This disparity underscores the critical importance of NCAI’s diligent lobbying efforts to protect vital projects and services from being jeopardized by shifting federal priorities. "We’re pointing out where the Congress can do better, where the agencies can do better; we’re pointing out that self-determination is the law of the land, and it’s not only the law of the land, it is a prescription that works," Hoskin affirmed. He emphasized that while some tribes might absorb the damage from cuts, for others, such reductions would be "absolutely consequential in terms of stopping services." Thus, tribal nations, leveraging their hard-earned resources, continue to advocate for the United States to uphold its solemn commitments, ensuring that the promise of self-determination truly benefits all.