California’s inaugural governor, Peter Hardeman Burnett, initiated a deeply racist campaign in the mid-19th century, vowing it would persist "until the Indian race becomes extinct." His two-year tenure, from 1849 to 1851, unleashed a horrific period marked by widespread malnutrition, systematic homicide, and forced migration, contributing to the decimation of California’s Indigenous populations by nearly 90% between 1848 and 1900. This period coincided with the California Gold Rush, an era that brought immense wealth to settlers but profound devastation to Native communities, who saw their ancestral lands invaded, their cultures suppressed, and their very existence threatened by state-sanctioned violence and policies. Despite such genocidal ambitions and the immense suffering inflicted, the Indigenous peoples of California, and indeed across the United States, demonstrated extraordinary resilience and ultimately survived.

A pivotal moment arrived in 1905 when the United States government publicly acknowledged the existence of 18 unratified treaties it had previously negotiated with various California tribes. These treaties, never ratified by the Senate, had effectively stripped tribes of vast tracts of land and denied them federal recognition for decades, leaving many without the protections and resources afforded to other federally recognized tribes. The disclosure spurred a renewed determination among these tribes to assert their inherent sovereignty, laying the groundwork for a robust legal and economic framework designed to reclaim their rights and secure their future. This foundational struggle for self-determination gained significant momentum in 1988 with the enactment of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA). This landmark federal legislation provided a legal and regulatory framework for tribal governments to operate gaming facilities on their sovereign lands, recognizing gaming as a legitimate means for tribes to generate revenue for governmental services and economic development. Initially, small casinos emerged on reservations in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Southern California, but their success quickly led to the proliferation of similar resorts across the country, transforming the economic landscape of Indian Country and profoundly fueling the ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty.

The transformative impact of tribal gaming on Native American communities is meticulously detailed in a recent study from the Harvard Kennedy School Project on Indigenous Governance and Development. This comprehensive report illuminates how gaming has become an indispensable engine for tribes to acquire both economic and political capital, reinforcing their capacity for self-governance. Authored by three distinguished Indigenous researchers—Randall Akee (Native Hawaiian), Elijah Moreno (Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation), and Amy Besaw Medford (Brothertown)—the study underscores the pervasive influence of this industry. As the authors articulate, "In reality, nearly every tribe is impacted by gaming in some capacity, whether directly or indirectly." They further suggest that "Past studies on American Indian gaming likely understate its impact, as nearly every tribe in the US may be exposed to various aspects of the industry whether they directly operate a casino themselves or not," highlighting its ripple effect throughout Native economies and beyond.

The sheer scale of tribal gaming’s contribution to the national economy is staggering. Last year, tribes reported a remarkable $43.9 billion in gross gaming revenue to the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC), representing nearly 40% of the nation’s total $115 billion gaming market, according to data from the American Gaming Association. This substantial revenue stream empowers tribal governments to fund a broad spectrum of critically needed programs and services that are often underfunded or entirely absent from federal allocations. These include essential investments in healthcare infrastructure, educational initiatives from early childhood to higher education, support for small business development, philanthropic endeavors that benefit both tribal members and surrounding communities, and vital infrastructure projects like roads, housing, and broadband internet access. This reinvestment not only elevates the quality of life within reservation communities but also creates a virtuous cycle of economic growth and self-sufficiency.

While tribal gaming has faced its share of criticism, particularly concerning the potential negative social impacts associated with gambling, the Harvard study offers a nuanced and compelling counter-narrative. It delves into the intricate dynamics of tribal gaming economies, meticulously examining their far-reaching effects on tribal investments, both within Indigenous economic ecosystems and the broader U.S. economy. Researchers analyzed 14 key indicators, including population growth, income levels, poverty rates, labor force participation, housing quality, and educational attainment, across reservation communities in the Lower 48 states between 1990 and 2020. (The Navajo Nation, due to its unique demographic scale, was studied separately.) The report conclusively demonstrates that gaming has been central to the successful leveraging of revenue for political capital, enabling tribes to fund powerful advocacy groups that lobby effectively for tribal sovereignty. The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) stands as the largest and most prominent among these, tirelessly working to advance the interests and protect the rights of Native nations.

This nexus of economic power and political advocacy was vividly demonstrated in early September, just weeks before his untimely passing on September 26, when the revered Indian Gaming Association Chairman, Ernie Stevens Jr. (Oneida Nation), joined a crucial gathering of Native-run lobby groups in Washington, D.C. He met with prominent NCAI leaders representing influential gaming tribes such as the Ponca Tribes of Nebraska, Pechanga, Cherokee, and Muscogee Creek Nations. Their collective presence in the nation’s capital served as a powerful reminder to Congress of Indian Country’s significant and often overlooked economic contributions to the entire United States. Stevens, a tireless champion of tribal sovereignty, passionately articulated the industry’s vast reach: "In the Indian gaming world, we’re responsible for 700,000 jobs. We continue to help this world turn, and we don’t do it by asking for help. We do it to help. Ask people to understand what we do is for our communities, for our generation and generations to come." His words underscored a core principle of tribal self-determination: utilizing sovereign resources to uplift communities and contribute to the national welfare, rather than relying on federal handouts.

Stevens further reported that tribal gaming revenues had successfully rebounded to "pre-COVID levels," a testament to the resilience of these tribal enterprises and their effective management. This revenue resurgence encompasses not only direct gaming income but also the significant proceeds generated from related amenities, including diverse entertainment options, conference facilities, fine dining establishments, and lodging accommodations, all of which contribute to a vibrant, integrated hospitality industry on tribal lands. Stevens often spoke of the profound influence of his mentors—Rick Hill, Gay Kingman, and Tim Wapato—who were instrumental in both implementing tribal gaming laws and forging enduring relationships with Congress, essential for advancing and defending tribal sovereignty.

Under Stevens’ visionary leadership, the NIGC strategically utilized existing treaty laws to expand the scope and reach of tribal gaming, leading to an increase in revenues exceeding $20 billion. This unprecedented financial growth empowered tribes to significantly bolster essential services for their citizens, including critical housing initiatives, comprehensive educational programs, and accessible healthcare facilities, alongside financing other vital capital projects. During periods of federal government shutdown, the proactive lobbying efforts spearheaded by NCAI, often supported by gaming revenues, played a crucial role in safeguarding vital programs like the Indian Health Service (IHS) and the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) from devastating furloughs and funding cuts. Tribes with substantial gaming revenue demonstrated their capacity for self-reliance and inter-tribal solidarity by stepping in to assist their citizens and even those of other tribes lacking casino reserves, providing food aid and ensuring tribal government employees were paid while their federal counterparts were furloughed. However, even these robust financial reserves faced depletion as shutdowns prolonged, underscoring the ongoing vulnerability despite economic gains.

The spirit of Indigenous solidarity, or "Gadugi" as expressed by the Cherokee Nation, extends beyond economic support to disaster relief. When the remnants of Typhoon Halong ravaged the western Alaska coast in October, leaving communities in dire straits, the NCAI and gaming tribes swiftly mobilized to provide crucial donations. As Ben Mallott, then-president of the Alaska Federation of Natives, poignantly testified to the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs on October 29, as the shutdown neared a month-long mark, Alaska’s Indigenous people faced agonizing choices between "food or fuel." The rapid response from gaming tribes demonstrated their commitment to mutual aid and the broader well-being of Native peoples. Cherokee Nation Deputy Principal Chief Bryan Warner eloquently captured this ethos: "As Cherokees, we have long-settled traditions of coming together and helping others, but especially in times of tragedy or catastrophes such as this. Our word for it is Gadugi, which at its core is all of us working together and supporting one another."

The Harvard report further highlights that "tribes with successful casinos also often play a significant role in funding community development, benefiting both tribal and non-tribal communities." A prime example is the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community, which has leveraged its substantial success in the gaming industry to make significant investments in regional community projects and provide vital support to other tribes across Minnesota, showcasing a model of economic self-sufficiency coupled with broad philanthropic outreach.

The story of the Pechanga Band of Indians in Riverside County, California, exemplifies this profound transformation. In 1906, just a year after California tribes gained partial recognition of their treaty rights, a Bureau of Indian Affairs employee, C.E. Kelsey, successfully petitioned the federal government to acquire an additional 235 acres of land for the Pechanga. Decades later, when Mark Macarro assumed the chairmanship of the Pechanga Band of Indians in 1995, the tribe had just launched its initial, modest casino. The legal landscape for tribal gaming in California was still evolving, but a pivotal moment arrived in 1998 when California voters overwhelmingly approved Proposition 5, authorizing tribal gaming. Throughout that intense campaign, Macarro tirelessly articulated how Proposition 5 would serve as a powerful catalyst for tribal sovereignty and economic empowerment. By 2002, the Pechanga tribe had opened a sprawling 200,000-square-foot casino and resort in Temecula, California, strategically located on the very Kelsey Tract acquired nearly a century prior. Today, this resort stands as one of the county’s largest overall employers, providing jobs for both Native and non-Native workers, underscoring its significant regional economic impact.

In 2004, Katherine Spilde, the esteemed chair of the Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University, conducted a separate Harvard study examining the broader economic well-being effects of casino gambling, focusing specifically on the Pechanga tribe. Though not Indigenous herself, Spilde was raised on the White Earth Nation in Minnesota, where her parents were schoolteachers, affording her a deep understanding and expertise in tribal gaming dynamics. Her findings were unequivocal: "Pechanga government’s gaming and resort revenues have allowed the Tribe to effectively eliminate its reliance on other governments and to create opportunities that benefit the entire region." Spilde concluded that "The results are a sense of independence and self-determination among Pechanga citizens, and productive and mutually supportive relations with the surrounding communities where once there was very little positive interaction between the Tribe and its neighbors." This case study perfectly illustrates how economic sovereignty can transform historical disparities into robust, mutually beneficial partnerships.

In September, prior to the federal government shutdown, Chairman Macarro articulated a growing understanding among both congressional and administration officials that tribal self-determination is not merely a legal principle but a highly effective model of governance. "We have much more work to do, but we leave this week with momentum, with allies on both sides of the aisle, and with a shared understanding that when tribal nations thrive America thrives," Macarro affirmed, encapsulating the symbiotic relationship between tribal prosperity and national strength.

The endurance of tribal sovereignty is underpinned by long-standing legal frameworks and significantly strengthened by healthy, self-sustaining economies. Ensuring that the U.S. government continues to honor its trust and treaty obligations to Native nations requires continuous, dynamic negotiations with federal authorities. In an era where the U.S. government’s priorities and operational structures are shifting in unexpected ways, the NCAI and its member tribes are actively advocating for the recognition that economically robust tribes are not only self-sufficient but also well-positioned to contribute positively to the broader U.S. economy.

Cherokee Nation Chief Chuck Hoskin Jr. acknowledges that some tribes, particularly those without significant gaming operations, continue to face severe budget problems, exacerbated by recent cuts from the federal government. This reality, he emphasizes, makes the NCAI’s vigorous lobbying efforts absolutely vital to protect essential projects and services constantly threatened by shifting federal priorities and budgetary constraints. "We’re pointing out where the Congress can do better, where the agencies can do better; we’re pointing out that self-determination is the law of the land, and it’s not only the law of the land, it is a prescription that works," Hoskin asserted. He further stressed the collective responsibility: "While we may be able to absorb some of the damage done by cuts, there are tribes for which this is absolutely consequential in terms of stopping services. We’re using our resources to do it and asking that the United States ought to step up and help us do it." This powerful statement underscores the ongoing need for the federal government to uphold its trust responsibility and recognize that investing in tribal self-determination is an investment in the future prosperity and stability of the entire nation.