California’s first governor, Peter Hardeman Burnett, famously championed a racist campaign with the explicit goal of the "Indian race becom[ing] extinct." His brief two-year tenure in office, from 1849 to 1851, unleashed a brutal period marked by widespread malnutrition, rampant homicide, and forced migrations that tragically decimated California’s Native populations by a staggering nearly 90% between 1848 and 1900. This genocidal policy, reflective of broader patterns of Manifest Destiny and westward expansion, aimed to extinguish Indigenous presence and culture, paving the way for settler colonial land acquisition and resource exploitation. Yet, despite these horrific atrocities and the pervasive federal policies of termination and assimilation that followed for generations, California’s Indigenous people, like Native nations across the continent, endured, demonstrating extraordinary resilience and an unwavering commitment to their cultural survival and sovereign rights.

A pivotal moment arrived in 1905 when the United States government publicly acknowledged and disclosed 18 unratified treaties it had previously negotiated with various California tribes. These treaties, despite never being formally ratified by the U.S. Senate, represented solemn agreements between sovereign nations, outlining land cessions and promises of federal protection and resources. Their disclosure, though belated, provided a critical foundation for tribes to reassert their inherent sovereignty and begin building robust legal and economic frameworks for self-determination, laying the groundwork for future advocacy and development.

Decades later, a significant legislative milestone was achieved with the enactment of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) in 1988. This landmark legislation, prompted by the Supreme Court’s 1987 decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians which affirmed tribal rights to operate gaming enterprises free from state interference, created a comprehensive regulatory framework for tribal gaming. Soon after, small casinos began to emerge on reservations in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Southern California. This initial success quickly proliferated, leading to similar resort developments across the country. Crucially, the substantial economic benefits generated by these enterprises became a powerful engine, revitalizing tribal economies and fueling the ongoing struggle for greater tribal sovereignty, self-sufficiency, and the ability to exercise their inherent governmental powers.

A recent, comprehensive study from the Harvard Kennedy School Project on Indigenous Governance and Development meticulously details how gaming has become instrumental in helping tribes acquire both economic and political capital. Co-authored by three distinguished Indigenous researchers—Randall Akee (Native Hawaiian), Elijah Moreno (Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation), and Amy Besaw Medford (Brothertown)—the report offers an expansive view of the industry’s reach. The authors compellingly argue, "In reality, nearly every tribe is impacted by gaming in some capacity, whether directly or indirectly." They further assert that "Past studies on American Indian gaming likely understate its impact, as nearly every tribe in the US may be exposed to various aspects of the industry whether they directly operate a casino themselves or not," highlighting the ripple effects throughout Indian Country and beyond.

The sheer scale of tribal gaming is significant. Tribes reported a remarkable $43.9 billion in gaming revenue to the National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) last year, representing nearly 40% of the nation’s total $115 billion gaming revenue, according to data from the American Gaming Association. This immense capital is not merely accumulating; tribes are strategically reinvesting these funds into their communities to support a wide array of much-needed programs and infrastructure. These include essential services such as healthcare facilities, educational initiatives, small business development, cultural preservation efforts, language revitalization programs, housing projects, law enforcement, and philanthropic endeavors that often extend to neighboring non-Native communities.

While tribal gaming has historically faced criticism, often centered on the perceived negative social impacts of gambling, the Harvard study offers a crucial re-evaluation. It presents a nuanced perspective, meticulously examining the profound impact of gaming economies on tribal investments, both within Indigenous economies and on the broader U.S. economy. Researchers analyzed 14 key indicators, including population growth, income levels, poverty rates, labor force participation, housing quality, and educational attainment, for reservation communities in the Lower 48 states between 1990 and 2020. (The Navajo Nation, due to its unique demographic scale, was studied separately.) The findings unequivocally conclude that gaming has been central to the remarkable economic turnaround experienced by many tribal nations, enabling them to successfully leverage revenue not only for direct community benefits but also for significant political capital. This capital directly funds influential advocacy groups, most notably the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), which actively lobbies for the protection and advancement of tribal sovereignty in Washington D.C.

In a testament to this strategic advocacy, just weeks before his sudden passing on September 26, Indian Gaming Association Chairman Ernie Stevens Jr. (Oneida Nation) joined a coalition of Native-run lobbying forces in Washington, D.C. He met with prominent NCAI leaders representing some of the nation’s largest gaming tribes, including the Ponca Tribes of Nebraska, Pechanga, Cherokee, and Muscogee Creek Nations. Their unified purpose was to unequivocally remind Congress of Indian Country’s substantial and often underestimated economic contributions to the national economy.

"In the Indian gaming world, we’re responsible for 700,000 jobs," Stevens powerfully stated during the discussions, emphasizing the widespread employment generated by tribal enterprises, which often extend far beyond reservation boundaries to benefit surrounding regional economies. He underscored the proactive stance of tribal nations, asserting, "We continue to help this world turn, and we don’t do it by asking for help. We do it to help. Ask people to understand what we do is for our communities, for our generation and generations to come." Stevens also confirmed that gaming revenue, alongside income from related amenities such as entertainment venues, conference facilities, fine dining, and lodging, had successfully returned to "pre-COVID levels," showcasing the industry’s robust recovery and stability.

Stevens credited his mentors—Rick Hill, Gay Kingman, and Tim Wapato—not only with the foundational work of implementing tribal gaming laws but also with forging crucial relationships with Congress to effectively lobby for tribal sovereignty. He eloquently articulated the broader significance of tribal gaming, stating, "They came to Washington to establish the presence of gaming and help folks understand why it’s not just about economic development, it’s about tribal sovereignty, our governments, how we interact in today’s world, and to defend every aspect of tribal sovereignty." Under Stevens’ visionary leadership, the NIGC effectively utilized existing treaty laws and inherent tribal governmental authority to strategically expand tribal gaming, resulting in a remarkable increase of more than $20 billion in revenues. This expansion directly enabled tribes to fund essential governmental services like housing, education, and healthcare, as well as finance critical capital projects that uplift their communities.

The tangible impact of economically strong tribal nations became starkly evident during periods of federal government shutdowns. Thanks to the proactive lobbying efforts, including the very September meetings with Congress, tribes were instrumental in helping protect the Indian Health Service (IHS) and the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) from devastating furloughs and funding cuts that would have severely impacted vital services for Native communities nationwide. Furthermore, tribes with substantial gaming revenue reserves were uniquely positioned to assist their own citizens and extend aid to other tribes lacking casino resources, providing crucial food assistance and ensuring tribal government employees continued to receive paychecks while their federal counterparts were furloughed. However, even these robust tribal financial reserves faced strain and dwindled significantly as the federal shutdowns dragged on, reducing their capacity to provide sustained relief.

The urgency of this situation was powerfully articulated on October 29, as a federal shutdown neared its month-long mark, when Ben Mallott, then president of the Alaska Federation of Natives, testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs. He described the grim reality faced by Alaska’s Indigenous people, who were being forced to choose between "food or fuel" due to disrupted federal services. In response to such crises, the NCAI and gaming tribes swiftly mobilized, offering significant donations and aid when the remnants of Typhoon Halong ravaged the western Alaska coast in October. Cherokee Nation Deputy Principal Chief Bryan Warner exemplified this spirit of communal responsibility, explaining, "As Cherokees, we have long-settled traditions of coming together and helping others, but especially in times of tragedy or catastrophes such as this. Our word for it is Gadugi, which at its core is all of us working together and supporting one another." This deeply rooted cultural value of mutual support is a cornerstone of how many tribal nations operate.

The Harvard report further underscores this commitment to broader community welfare, noting that "tribes with successful casinos also often play a significant role in funding community development, benefiting both tribal and non-tribal communities." A prime example is the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community, which has leveraged its substantial success in the gaming industry to invest heavily in community projects both on and off their reservation and provide significant financial support to other tribes across Minnesota and the wider Indian Country. This philanthropic reach demonstrates how tribal economic empowerment creates a positive multiplier effect for regional prosperity.

Returning to California, the Pechanga Band of Indians offers a compelling case study of this transformation. In 1906, a year after California tribes gained recognition of their treaty rights, a forward-thinking Bureau of Indian Affairs employee, C.E. Kelsey, successfully petitioned the federal government to purchase an additional 235 acres of land to be added to the Pechanga’s existing land base in Riverside County. This land, known as the Kelsey Tract, would prove vital for the tribe’s future. When Mark Macarro assumed the chairmanship of the Pechanga Band of Indians in 1995, the tribe had just opened its first modest casino. At that time, state law lagged behind tribal initiatives, but in 1998, California voters overwhelmingly approved Proposition 5, a ballot measure that formally allowed tribal gaming. Throughout that pivotal campaign, Macarro consistently emphasized that Prop. 5 would not merely be an economic boon but, more importantly, a powerful affirmation and tool for advancing tribal sovereignty. In 2002, the Pechanga tribe celebrated the grand opening of a sprawling 200,000-square-foot casino and resort in Temecula, California, strategically located on the historic Kelsey Tract. Today, this resort stands as one of Riverside County’s largest overall employers, providing thousands of jobs for both Native and non-Native workers, illustrating the deep economic integration and benefit to the wider region.

In 2004, Katherine Spilde, a respected expert on tribal gaming and chair of the Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University, conducted a detailed study of the Pechanga tribe for a separate Harvard research project examining casino gambling’s impact on overall economic well-being. Although not Indigenous herself, Spilde was raised on the White Earth Nation in Minnesota, where her parents were schoolteachers, giving her a unique and informed perspective on tribal affairs. Her findings highlighted the profound shift enabled by gaming: "Pechanga government’s gaming and resort revenues have allowed the Tribe to effectively eliminate its reliance on other governments and to create opportunities that benefit the entire region," Spilde wrote. She concluded that the results were "a sense of independence and self-determination among Pechanga citizens, and productive and mutually supportive relations with the surrounding communities where once there was very little positive interaction between the Tribe and its neighbors." This transformation from economic dependency to self-sufficiency and positive intergovernmental relations epitomizes the goals of tribal sovereignty.

In September, prior to the recent federal shutdown, Chairman Macarro observed a growing understanding among both Congress and administration officials that tribal self-determination is not just a legal principle but a practical and effective governing model. "We have much more work to do," he acknowledged, "but we leave this week with momentum, with allies on both sides of the aisle, and with a shared understanding that when tribal nations thrive America thrives." This sentiment reflects a crucial paradigm shift, recognizing that the prosperity and self-governance of tribal nations contribute directly to the strength and stability of the entire United States.

Tribal sovereignty, a fundamental aspect of the unique nation-to-nation relationship between tribal governments and the U.S. federal government, endures under long-standing legal frameworks and is now significantly strengthened by healthy, self-sustaining economies. Ensuring that the U.S. government continues to meet its sacred trust and treaty obligations requires ongoing, vigilant negotiations and advocacy with the federal government. At a time when the U.S. government faces radical shifts and unexpected challenges, the NCAI is strategically advocating for the understanding that economically healthy and self-sufficient tribes are not merely beneficiaries of federal aid but are powerful partners, well-positioned to contribute substantially to the U.S. economy and national well-being.

Cherokee Nation Chief Chuck Hoskin Jr. candidly acknowledges that while some tribes have robust economies, many others continue to face serious budget problems, often exacerbated by recent cuts and inconsistent funding from the federal government. This disparity underscores precisely why the NCAI’s lobbying efforts are absolutely vital, serving as a critical bulwark to protect essential projects and services that are constantly threatened by shifting federal priorities and budgetary constraints.

"We’re pointing out where the Congress can do better, where the agencies can do better; we’re pointing out that self-determination is the law of the land, and it’s not only the law of the land, it is a prescription that works," Hoskin asserted, framing tribal self-determination as a proven model for effective governance and community development. He emphasized the collective responsibility: "While we may be able to absorb some of the damage done by cuts, there are tribes for which this is absolutely consequential in terms of stopping services. We’re using our resources to do it and asking that the United States ought to step up and help us do it." This call to action highlights that tribal nations, through their hard-won economic success, are not just surviving, but thriving and leading, while simultaneously holding the federal government accountable to its enduring obligations.