Old snow crunched underfoot in mid-January as a dozen people snowshoed near Molas Pass in Colorado’s San Juan Mountains, a stark visual representation of a regional crisis. The interpretive hike, hosted by local environmental organizations, offered a living classroom on ecology, climate change, and the critical role of snowpack. Under an azure sky, the surprisingly bare ground beneath trailside spruces and pines served as a potent local example of a devastating lack of snow that gripped much of the Western United States. This diminished snowpack, the West’s largest natural reservoir, is vital for supplying water to over 100 million people and sustaining diverse ecosystems. Historically, the amount of water stored in the snowpack reaches its peak around April 1. However, this year, many areas found themselves with little to no snowpack by that date, marking the lowest level recorded in the 45 years since automated measurements began.

While a stubborn high-pressure ridge contributed to the snow drought by deflecting winter storms northward to Canada in January, the primary driver, according to the nonprofit Climate Central, was exceptional heat fueled by climate change. This warming trend also triggered an unusually early and intense spring heatwave, which decimated the limited snow that did accumulate, occurring at a time when other dry winters have historically seen revitalizing “miracle March” snowstorms. The map from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service, showing snow-water equivalent (SWE) as a percentage of the recent historical median, starkly illustrates the widespread deficit across the Western U.S. as of April 1, the typical peak of snow accumulation.

The scarcity of snow was a pervasive issue across the Western United States, yet its uniform nature can obscure the distinct regional manifestations and profound implications of a winter characterized by extreme variability. This season witnessed a confluence of record flooding, unprecedented dryness, and exceptional heat, painting a complex picture of climatic disruption. Examining specific regions reveals how this winter’s snow drought unfolded with unique challenges and consequences.

In Washington’s Cascade Range, winter began and ended with a “wet” snow drought, where precipitation fell predominantly as rain rather than snow. In December, some areas received over two feet of rain within two weeks, leading to catastrophic flooding west of the Cascades and melting much of the nascent snowpack. Paradoxically, this deluge also replenished reservoirs in the Yakima Basin on the drier eastern side of the range, which had been critically low, holding only 8% of their normal volume in October. This respite was short-lived as a “dry” snow drought took hold in January, with minimal precipitation falling. Although pockets of Washington’s Cascades experienced near-normal precipitation in February, the majority of the mountains remained dry, and the range’s snowpack stayed significantly below average. The pattern continued into March, with several feet of snow accumulating only to be washed away by subsequent rain.

This cyclical pattern poses a significant problem for the Yakima Basin, which lacks sufficient reservoir capacity to store adequate runoff for the region’s needs. Hydrogeologist and geochemist Carey Gazis of Central Washington University in Ellensburg explained that the snowpack typically functions as an additional reservoir, holding water as snow well into the summer. This natural storage is crucial for irrigating crops in the Yakima Valley, often called the “fruit bowl of the nation,” where snowmelt is essential for cultivating produce like cherries, apples, grapes, hops, and mint. Furthermore, this water sustains the Yakama Nation’s vital efforts to restore populations of culturally significant migratory fish. As of March, the Bureau of Reclamation forecasted that many farmers in the Yakima Valley would receive only 44% of their usual water supply for the upcoming growing season, a direct consequence of the severe snow drought.

One long-term solution being explored and implemented in parts of the basin, including on the Yakama Nation reservation, is augmenting water storage by enhancing aquifers. Gazis highlighted the vast potential of underground storage, stating, “There’s all this space under the surface that can hold more water.” Projects involving pumping runoff or increasing passive water infiltration into the ground are already underway, offering a promising avenue for more resilient water management.

Moving to the Northern Rocky Mountains, encompassing Idaho, Montana, and western Wyoming, the winter also exhibited a pattern of wet snow droughts at the beginning and end, punctuated by a dry January. However, colder temperatures at higher elevations allowed for a near- to above-average snowpack in some areas that persisted into mid-March. This fortunate circumstance placed these regions in a comparatively better position than much of the West by early April. This sustained snow cover provided a crucial boost to winter tourism destinations, such as Idaho’s Wood River Valley. Ashton Wilson, director of the valley’s Environmental Resource Center, noted in February that business was as robust as ever, or even slightly busier, due to the presence of snow, unlike many other winter resorts, including those in Colorado.

Russell Qualls, Idaho’s state climatologist, speculated that the Wood River Basin and surrounding areas might fare “fairly well” through the summer in terms of water availability for both municipal use and agriculture. However, the lack of snow at middle and lower elevations across Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana, coupled with ongoing unseasonable heat, raises concerns about an extended fire season. Both Montana and Wyoming experienced wildfires exceeding 1,000 acres in March, a concerning early start to a season that typically begins in May or June.

In contrast, Colorado experienced a significantly more severe snow deficit, contributing to similar early wildfire activity, with fires igniting as early as December. Both December and January were marked by abnormally dry conditions, and a rare winter storm delivered rain at elevations as high as 11,000 feet, an unusually high altitude for winter precipitation and unprecedented in much of the state. This was starkly evident during the January snowshoe hike near Molas Pass, organized by the San Juan Mountains Association and Mountain Studies Institute. Outdoor educator Colin Courtney, demonstrating the use of avalanche shovels, guided attendees in digging a snow pit to assess the snowpack’s depth and water content. A dull thunk signaled shovel blades hitting bare dirt just two feet down. As Courtney melted snow samples over a camp stove, he noted that the snowpack at the pass held only 23% of the water content found in an average year, a measurement known as snow water equivalent (SWE), which is a more critical indicator than depth alone for planning annual water needs and assessing wildfire risk. “It’s a very real thing to be concerned this year,” Courtney stated, underscoring the gravity of the situation.

Beyond water scarcity, the lack of insulating snow cover presents ecological threats. Research conducted in New Hampshire and Finland has indicated complex detrimental effects on tree health when root systems are deprived of their protective snow layer during winter. The impact on Colorado’s trees, already stressed by the most severe megadrought in 1,200 years, remains an unknown but potentially significant concern. Climatologist Allie Mazurek of the Colorado Climate Center reported in an early April email that the state was experiencing its "worst snowpack on record," attributing the record-breaking March heatwave in the West to pushing the state beyond its previous historic low recorded in 1981.

The implications of Colorado’s diminished snowpack extend far beyond state borders, as it is a crucial water source for 18 other states, numerous tribal nations, and even parts of Mexico. The Colorado River Basin alone provides drinking water for one in ten Americans, irrigates over five million acres of cropland, and generates substantial hydroelectric power. This year’s snow drought exacerbates an already contentious struggle among the seven states within the Colorado Basin over the management of the dwindling river.

Mazurek offered a caveat, noting the potential influence of El Niño, a climate pattern that forecasters expect to develop in early fall and could bring significant rain to Colorado. However, she emphasized that “rain tends to do much less for our water supply than snow.” This highlights a critical long-term challenge: snow is a resource expected to become increasingly scarce in the coming years across the West. Researchers project that climate change could reduce snow-supplied water by approximately a quarter by mid-century. Mazurek summarized the region’s predicament with stark clarity: "We should probably be preparing for less water to be coming down from the mountain snowpack than usual."